Nontraumatic thoracic aortic dissection: Difference between revisions

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''Not to be confused with [[traumatic aortic transection]]''
==Background==
==Background==
[[File:Aorta segments.jpg|thumb|Aortic segments]]
[[File:Aorta branches.jpg|thumb|Branches of the aorta]]
[[File:IJRRT-09-00343-g002.png|thumb|Aortic anatomy. The aorta is divided into 5 anatomical segments– aortic root, ascending aorta, aortic arch, descending thoracic aorta, and abdominal aorta. Its wall is composed of three layers – intima, media, and adventitia.]]
*Most commonly seen in men 60-80 yrs old
*Intimal tear with blood leaking into media
*Mortality in first 48 hours of acute presentation is high
**Commonly quoted as 1-2% per hour, but this is based on a series from the 1950s<ref>Hirst AE Jr, et al. Dissecting aneurysm of the aorta: a review of 505 cases. ''Medicine (Baltimore)''. 1958;37(3):217-279.</ref>
**More recent data suggests mortality for type A dissection is 0.5% per hour when treated medically, and  0.1% per hour when managed surgically<ref>Harris, KM. et al. Early mortality in type A acute aortic dissection: Insights from the International Registry of Acute Aortic Dissection. ''JAMA Cardiol''. 2022;7(10):1009-1015.</ref>
*Diagnosis delayed > 24hr in 50% of cases
*Bimodal age distribution
**Young with risk factors
***[[Connective tissue disease]] (e.g. [[Marfan syndrome]], Ehlers-Danlos, collagen vascular disease)
***[[Pregnancy]], especially 3rd trimester
***Recent cardiac catheterization
***Bicuspid aortic valve
***[[coarctation of the Aorta|Aortic coarctation]]
**Elderly males with chronic hypertension
**Atherosclerotic risk factors (smoking, hypertension, HLD, DM)


==Clinical Features==
===General===
*Symptoms
**Tearing/ripping [[chest pain|pain]] (10.8x increased disease probability)
***64% described the pain as sharp vs 50.6% who described it as tearing or ripping<ref>Hagan PG, Nienaber CA, Isselbacher EM, et al. The International Registry of Acute Aortic Dissection (IRAD): new insights into an old disease. JAMA. 2000;283(7):897–903.</ref>
**Migrating pain (7.6x)
**Sudden chest pain (2.6x)
**History of [[hypertension]] (1.5x)
*Signs
**[[Focal neuro deficit|Focal neurologic deficit]] (33x)
**Diastolic heart [[murmur]] (acute aortic regurg) (4.9x)
**Pulse deficit (2.7x)
**[[Hypertension]] at time of presentation (49% of all cases<ref name="a">Hagan PG, Nienaber CA, Isselbacher EM, et al. The International Registry of Acute Aortic Dissection (IRAD): new insights into an old disease. JAMA. 2000; 283(7):897-903.</ref>)


2-3x > men usually 50-70 yrs old
===Specific===
*Ascending Aorta
**Acute [[aortic regurgitation]], leading to a diastolic decrescendo [[murmur]], [[hypotension]], or [[heart failure]], in 50%-66%
**[[MI]]/Ischemia on ECG, usually inferior (dissection affects the right coronary artery more often than the left coronary artery<ref>Spittell PC, S et al. Clinical features and differential diagnosis of aortic dissection: experience with 236 cases (1980 through 1990) Mayo Clin Proc. 1993;68:642–51.</ref>)
**[[Cardiac Tamponade]]
**[[Hemothorax]] - if adventitia disruption
**[[Horner syndrome|Horners]], partial - sympathetic ganglion
**Voice hoarseness - recurrent laryngeal nerve compression
**[[CVA]]/[[Syncope]] - if carotid extension
**[[Focal neuro deficit|Neurological deficits]]
**SBP>20mmhg difference between arms
**[[Hypertension]] at time of presentation (35.7% of all cases<ref name="a"/>)
*Descending Aorta
**[[Chest pain]], [[back pain]], [[abdominal pain]]
***Pain abrupt, severe (90% of patients) radiating to back
**[[Hypertension]] at time of presentation (70.1% of all cases<ref name="a" />)
**[[Weakness|Hemiplegia]], neuropathy (15%)
**[[Renal failure]]
**Distal Pulse deficits/ [[limb ischemia]]
**[[Mesenteric ischemia]]


Predisposing factors: Marfans, Ehlers-Danlos, congenital heart dz, pregnancy (third trimester), bicuspid valve (9x), cocaine, decelerating trauma, aortitis (syphilis, Takayasu, giant cell)
==Differential Diagnosis==
{{Chest Pain DDX}}
{{Hypertension DDX}}


RISK FACTOR: Hypertension >>> smoking, cocaine, dyslipidemia
==Evaluation==
[[File:1920px-Dissektion im Aortenbogen im Roentgenbild 76W - CR und CT - 001 - Annotation.jpg|thumb|Dissection of the aortic arch in X-ray image 76W - CR and CT - 001 - Annotation.jpg|Dissection of the aortic arch: initial CXR normal visualization of the calcification shadow in the aortic arch (left); CXR 4 months later with calcification shifted centrally into the shadow of the aortic arch with a blurred external border (middle); CT scan coronal (top right) and axial (lower right).]]
[[File:Dissection CXR.jpg|thumbnail|CXR showing widened mediastinum and porminent aortic knob]]
[[File:Dissection2018WithPericardial.jpg|thumb|Type A dissection with pericardial effusion as a result. Red arrows showing ascending and descending thoracic aorta. The blue arrows pericardial effusion.]]
[[File:Dissection.png|thumbnail|CT chest with contrast of thoracic aortic dissection.]]
===[https://www.mdcalc.com/aortic-dissection-detection-risk-score-add-rs Aortic Dissection Detection Risk Score (ADD-RS)]===
''A score 1 should be awarded for each of the 3 categories that contain at least one of the listed features''
{| class="wikitable"
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Predisposing conditions'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Pain features'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Physical findings'''
|-
|
*[[Marfan syndrome]]
*[[Connective tissue disease]]
*Family history of aortic disease
*Recent aortic manipulation
*Known thoracic aortic aneurysm
||
Chest, back, or abdominal pain described as:
*Abrupt in onset/severe in intensity
AND
*Ripping/tearing/sharp or stabbing quality
||
*Evidence of perfusion deficit
**Pulse deficit
**Systolic BP differential
**Focal neurological deficit (in conjunction with pain)
*Murmur of aortic insufficiency (new or not known to be old and in conjunction with pain)
*[[Hypotension]] of shock state
|}


{| class="wikitable"
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Score'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Category'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Prevalence'''
|-
| 0||Low||6%
|-
| 1||Intermediate||27%
|-
| >1||High||39%
|}


===Classification===
===No Risk Factor Screening===
*[[CXR]]
**Abnormal in 90% (3.4x)
**Mediastinal widening (seen in 56-63%)
**Left sided pleural effusion (seen in 19%)
**Widening of aortic contour (seen in 48%), displaced calcification (6mm), Calcium sign (look for white line of calcium within aortic knob and measure to outer edge of the aortic knob - distance greater than 0.5 cm is positive and > 1 cm is highly suspicious for dissection), aortic kinking, double density sign




Stanford:
===Low-Intermediate===
''(Based on ADD-RS)''<ref>Circulation. 2018 Jan 16;137(3):250-258. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.029457. Epub 2017 Oct 13. Nazerian, et al. Diagnostic Accuracy of the Aortic Dissection Detection Risk Score Plus D-Dimer for Acute Aortic Syndromes: The ADvISED Prospective Multicenter Study.</ref><ref>Asha SE et al. "A systematic review and meta-analysis of D-dimer as a rule out test for suspected acute aortic dissection." Annals of EM. 66;4;368-377Ocotber 2015.</ref><ref>Shimony A, et al. Meta-analysis of usefulness of d-dimer to diagnose acute aortic dissection. Am J Cardiol. 2011; 107(8):1227-1234.</ref>
*[[D-dimer]] for ADD-RS ≤ 1 (low or intermediate risk)


Type A - involves ascending Aorta, +/- descending Ao (DeBakey I & II)
===High Risk/Definitive===
*CT aortogram chest
**Study of choice
**Similar sensitivity/specificity to TEE and MRA
*TEE
**If CT delayed due to contrast allergy or availability, or patient instability.
**TEE has a sensitivity of 98% and 95% specific<ref>Shiga T, Wajima Z, Apfel CC, Inoue T, Ohe Y. Diagnostic accuracy of transesophageal echocardiography, helical computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging for suspected thoracic aortic dissection: systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2006 Jul 10;166(13):1350-6.</ref>


Type B - distal to the origin of the L subclavian a (DeBakey III)
===Other Findings===
[[File:aorticdissection.gif|thumbnail|Type A Aortic Dissection<ref>http://www.thepocusatlas.com/echocardiography-1</ref>]]
[[File:USDissection.png|thumbnail|Abdominal Aortic Dissection on Ultrasound]]
*[[ECG]]
**[[LVH]] on admission ECG (3.2x)
**Ischemia (esp inferior) - 15%
**Nonspec ST-T changes - 40%
*[[echocardiography|Bedside US]]
**Can help in ruling in patients when AOFT is >4cm
**Rule out pericardial effusion and tamponade, especially in hypotension, syncope, dyspnea


{{Aortic dissection classification}}


DeBakey:
==Management==


Type I - ascending and descending Ao
===General Principles===
*Control pain to reduce sympathetic stimulation.
**[[Fentanyl]] is easily titratable with minimal cardiovascular effects
*Right radial arterial line or right arm blood pressure will generally be the most accurate
*Reducing heart rate while maintaining low-normal blood pressure reduces aortic flow acceleration, thereby reducing shear force on the intimal wall
**'''Goal: HR < 60 bpm, SBP 100-120 mmHg'''
**Control heart rate before blood pressure<ref>[https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.534198 Tsai TT, Nienaber CA, and Eagle KA. Acute Aortic Syndromes. Circulation. 2005;112:3802–3813]</ref>
**[[Beta blockers]] are good first-line option, since they reduce heart rate and aortic wall tension
***Use β-blockers with caution in severe, acute [[aortic regurgitation]] - may worsen shock if dependent on compensatory tachycardia


Type II - isolated to ascending Ao
===Heart Rate control===
#[[Esmolol]]
#*Advantage of short half life, easily titratable
#*Bolus 0.5mg/kg over 1min; infuse 0.05mg/kg/min (titrate upward in 0.05mg/kg/min increments to a maximum of 0.3 mg/kg/min)
#*[http://emcrit.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/esmolol-drip-sheet.pdf Esmolol Drip Sheet]
#[[Labetalol]] - has both α and beta effects
#*Push dose - 10-20mg with repeat doses of 20-40mg q10min up to 300mg
#*Drip - Load 15-20mg IV, followed by 5mg/hr
#[[Metoprolol]]
#*5mg IV x 3; infuse at 2-5mg/hr
#[[Diltiazem]] - Use if contraindications to beta-blockers
#*Loading 0.25mg/kg over 2–5 min, followed by a drip of 5mg/h


Type III - isolated to descending Ao
===Blood pressure control (vasodilators)===
Use if needed after beta-blockade.
#[[Nicardipine]]:
#*5mg/hr start, then titrate up by 2.5mg/hr every 10 min until goal
#*Once at goal, drop to 3mg/hr and re-titrate from there
#*May initially bolus 2mg IV<ref>Curran MP et al. Intravenous Nicardipine. Drugs 2006; 66(13): 1755-1782. http://emcrit.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/bolus-dose-nicardipine.pdf</ref>
#[[Clevidipine]]
#*1-2 mg/hr
#*Double dose every 90 seconds until approaching goal BP, then increase in smaller amounts every 5-10 minutes until goal achieved.<ref>UpToDate Inc. Clevidipine [Drug information]. In:UpToDate Lexidrug. Wolters Kluwer; 2025. Accessed August 1, 2025.</ref>
#[[Nitroprusside]] 0.3-0.5mcg/kg/min - Risk of cerebral blood vessel vasodilation and CN/Thiocynate toxicity
#[[Fenoldopam]]
#[[Enalapril]]


===Surgery===
*Type A (any portion of ascending aorta)
**Requires surgery
*Type B (isolated to descending aorta)
**Primarily medical management with surgery consultation


Chronic > 2wks otherwise Acute
==Disposition==
 
*Admission to OR or ICU
== ==
 
 
==Diagnosis==
 
 
===History===
 
 
Pain - 90% - abrupt
 
VasoVagal - sweat, N\V, lt headed
 
Neurologic Deficit - 20-40%
 
Syncopy - 5-10%
 
 
===Physical Exam===
 
 
Tachycardia
 
Pulse Deficits/Discrepencies - (50% of proximal lesions but can be fleeting)
 
Aortic Insufficiency
 
Tamponade
 
Neuro - hemiplegia, parapesia, neuropathy
 
*Rare - fever unknown origin
 
=== ===
 
 
===Studies===
 
 
*D-Dimer always elevated (sensitive but not specific)
 
ECG - Vent. hypertrophy from HTN, 10-40% may show ischemia or infarction, 33% normal
 
CXR - 60-90% mediastinal widening (S/S 67/70), double shadow, aortic knob, CA+ sign rare but specific, pleural effusions
 
Echo (TEE) (S/S 97-100/90-100)
 
CT & MRI - 95%
 
Aortography (S/S 94/88)
 
 
==Treatment==
 
 
Keep BP 100-120sys, HR 60-80
 
1. Nitroprusside (0.5-1.0mcg/kg/min; titrate) & B-blocker eg esmolol (0.5mg/kg loading, 0.05mg/kg/min infusion; titrate)
 
2. Labetalol (10-20mg IV q10mins, or initial infusion rate at 2mg/min; titrate) or
 
3. Verapamil
 
 
1. Type A - Surgery, unless worsening stroke
 
2. Type B - Medical, unless uncontrolled BP, Cont Pain, Rupture.
 


==Complications==
==Complications==
*AV Regurgitation/Insufficiency
**[[CHF]] with diastolic murmur
*Rupture
**Pericardium: [[cardiac tamponade]]
**Mediastinum: [[hemothorax]]
*Vascular obstruction
**Coronary: [[ACS]]
**Carotid: [[CVA]]
**Lumbar: Paraplegia


==See Also==
*[[Hypertensive emergency]]
*[[Traumatic aortic transection]]
*[[Abdominal aortic aneurysm]]
*[[IRAD]]


1 Rupture
==External Links==
 
*[http://www.thennt.com/lr/aortic-dissection/ NNT Aortic Dissection LRs]
  pericardium --> tamponade
*[http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/121/13/e266.full AHA Full Guidelines]
 
*[http://emupdates.com/2010/06/23/accaha-aortic-dissection-guideline/ AHA Quick Summary]
  mediastinum --> hemothorax
*[http://academiclifeinem.com/paucis-verbis-international-registry-on-aortic-dissection-irad/ ALiEM Paucis Verbis: International Registry on Aortic Dissection (IRAD)]
 
*[https://www.mdcalc.com/aortic-dissection-detection-risk-score-add-rs#evidence MDcalc ADD Score]
 
2 Obstruction of branch vessels
 
  coronaries --> acute MI
 
  arch vessels --> stroke
 
  lumbar --> paraplegia
 
  mesenteric, renal, or limb ischemia
 
 
3 AV Insufficiency
 
  diastolic murmur and CHF
 
 
==Prognosis==
 
 
Uncomplicated Type B with aggressive medical therapy
 
-30 day mortality: 10%
 
-5 year mortality: 45-60%
 
 
==Source ==
 
 
Adapted from Donaldson, Bessen, Pani, DeBonis
 
 


==References==
<references/>


[[Category:Cards]]
[[Category:Cardiology]]
[[Category:Vascular]]

Latest revision as of 19:44, 17 September 2025

Not to be confused with traumatic aortic transection

Background

Aortic segments
Branches of the aorta
Aortic anatomy. The aorta is divided into 5 anatomical segments– aortic root, ascending aorta, aortic arch, descending thoracic aorta, and abdominal aorta. Its wall is composed of three layers – intima, media, and adventitia.
  • Most commonly seen in men 60-80 yrs old
  • Intimal tear with blood leaking into media
  • Mortality in first 48 hours of acute presentation is high
    • Commonly quoted as 1-2% per hour, but this is based on a series from the 1950s[1]
    • More recent data suggests mortality for type A dissection is 0.5% per hour when treated medically, and 0.1% per hour when managed surgically[2]
  • Diagnosis delayed > 24hr in 50% of cases
  • Bimodal age distribution

Clinical Features

General

  • Symptoms
    • Tearing/ripping pain (10.8x increased disease probability)
      • 64% described the pain as sharp vs 50.6% who described it as tearing or ripping[3]
    • Migrating pain (7.6x)
    • Sudden chest pain (2.6x)
    • History of hypertension (1.5x)
  • Signs

Specific

Differential Diagnosis

Chest pain

Critical

Emergent

Nonemergent

Hypertension

Evaluation

Dissection of the aortic arch: initial CXR normal visualization of the calcification shadow in the aortic arch (left); CXR 4 months later with calcification shifted centrally into the shadow of the aortic arch with a blurred external border (middle); CT scan coronal (top right) and axial (lower right).
CXR showing widened mediastinum and porminent aortic knob
Type A dissection with pericardial effusion as a result. Red arrows showing ascending and descending thoracic aorta. The blue arrows pericardial effusion.
CT chest with contrast of thoracic aortic dissection.

Aortic Dissection Detection Risk Score (ADD-RS)

A score 1 should be awarded for each of the 3 categories that contain at least one of the listed features

Predisposing conditions Pain features Physical findings

Chest, back, or abdominal pain described as:

  • Abrupt in onset/severe in intensity

AND

  • Ripping/tearing/sharp or stabbing quality
  • Evidence of perfusion deficit
    • Pulse deficit
    • Systolic BP differential
    • Focal neurological deficit (in conjunction with pain)
  • Murmur of aortic insufficiency (new or not known to be old and in conjunction with pain)
  • Hypotension of shock state
Score Category Prevalence
0 Low 6%
1 Intermediate 27%
>1 High 39%

No Risk Factor Screening

  • CXR
    • Abnormal in 90% (3.4x)
    • Mediastinal widening (seen in 56-63%)
    • Left sided pleural effusion (seen in 19%)
    • Widening of aortic contour (seen in 48%), displaced calcification (6mm), Calcium sign (look for white line of calcium within aortic knob and measure to outer edge of the aortic knob - distance greater than 0.5 cm is positive and > 1 cm is highly suspicious for dissection), aortic kinking, double density sign


Low-Intermediate

(Based on ADD-RS)[6][7][8]

  • D-dimer for ADD-RS ≤ 1 (low or intermediate risk)

High Risk/Definitive

  • CT aortogram chest
    • Study of choice
    • Similar sensitivity/specificity to TEE and MRA
  • TEE
    • If CT delayed due to contrast allergy or availability, or patient instability.
    • TEE has a sensitivity of 98% and 95% specific[9]

Other Findings

Type A Aortic Dissection[10]
Abdominal Aortic Dissection on Ultrasound
  • ECG
    • LVH on admission ECG (3.2x)
    • Ischemia (esp inferior) - 15%
    • Nonspec ST-T changes - 40%
  • Bedside US
    • Can help in ruling in patients when AOFT is >4cm
    • Rule out pericardial effusion and tamponade, especially in hypotension, syncope, dyspnea

Aortic Dissection Classification

  • Stanford
    • Type A: Involves any portion of ascending aorta
    • Type B: Isolated to descending aorta
  • De Bakey
    • Type I: Involves the ascending and descending aorta
    • Type II: Involves only the ascending aorta
    • Type III: Involves only the descending aorta
Classification of aortic dissection
Image AoDissect DeBakey1.png AoDissect DeBakey2.png AoDissect DeBakey3.png
Percentage 60% 10–15% 25–30%
Type DeBakey I DeBakey II DeBakey III
Classification Stanford A (Proximal) Stanford B (Distal)

Management

General Principles

  • Control pain to reduce sympathetic stimulation.
    • Fentanyl is easily titratable with minimal cardiovascular effects
  • Right radial arterial line or right arm blood pressure will generally be the most accurate
  • Reducing heart rate while maintaining low-normal blood pressure reduces aortic flow acceleration, thereby reducing shear force on the intimal wall
    • Goal: HR < 60 bpm, SBP 100-120 mmHg
    • Control heart rate before blood pressure[11]
    • Beta blockers are good first-line option, since they reduce heart rate and aortic wall tension
      • Use β-blockers with caution in severe, acute aortic regurgitation - may worsen shock if dependent on compensatory tachycardia

Heart Rate control

  1. Esmolol
    • Advantage of short half life, easily titratable
    • Bolus 0.5mg/kg over 1min; infuse 0.05mg/kg/min (titrate upward in 0.05mg/kg/min increments to a maximum of 0.3 mg/kg/min)
    • Esmolol Drip Sheet
  2. Labetalol - has both α and beta effects
    • Push dose - 10-20mg with repeat doses of 20-40mg q10min up to 300mg
    • Drip - Load 15-20mg IV, followed by 5mg/hr
  3. Metoprolol
    • 5mg IV x 3; infuse at 2-5mg/hr
  4. Diltiazem - Use if contraindications to beta-blockers
    • Loading 0.25mg/kg over 2–5 min, followed by a drip of 5mg/h

Blood pressure control (vasodilators)

Use if needed after beta-blockade.

  1. Nicardipine:
    • 5mg/hr start, then titrate up by 2.5mg/hr every 10 min until goal
    • Once at goal, drop to 3mg/hr and re-titrate from there
    • May initially bolus 2mg IV[12]
  2. Clevidipine
    • 1-2 mg/hr
    • Double dose every 90 seconds until approaching goal BP, then increase in smaller amounts every 5-10 minutes until goal achieved.[13]
  3. Nitroprusside 0.3-0.5mcg/kg/min - Risk of cerebral blood vessel vasodilation and CN/Thiocynate toxicity
  4. Fenoldopam
  5. Enalapril

Surgery

  • Type A (any portion of ascending aorta)
    • Requires surgery
  • Type B (isolated to descending aorta)
    • Primarily medical management with surgery consultation

Disposition

  • Admission to OR or ICU

Complications

  • AV Regurgitation/Insufficiency
    • CHF with diastolic murmur
  • Rupture
  • Vascular obstruction
    • Coronary: ACS
    • Carotid: CVA
    • Lumbar: Paraplegia

See Also

External Links

References

  1. ↑ Hirst AE Jr, et al. Dissecting aneurysm of the aorta: a review of 505 cases. Medicine (Baltimore). 1958;37(3):217-279.
  2. ↑ Harris, KM. et al. Early mortality in type A acute aortic dissection: Insights from the International Registry of Acute Aortic Dissection. JAMA Cardiol. 2022;7(10):1009-1015.
  3. ↑ Hagan PG, Nienaber CA, Isselbacher EM, et al. The International Registry of Acute Aortic Dissection (IRAD): new insights into an old disease. JAMA. 2000;283(7):897–903.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Hagan PG, Nienaber CA, Isselbacher EM, et al. The International Registry of Acute Aortic Dissection (IRAD): new insights into an old disease. JAMA. 2000; 283(7):897-903.
  5. ↑ Spittell PC, S et al. Clinical features and differential diagnosis of aortic dissection: experience with 236 cases (1980 through 1990) Mayo Clin Proc. 1993;68:642–51.
  6. ↑ Circulation. 2018 Jan 16;137(3):250-258. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.029457. Epub 2017 Oct 13. Nazerian, et al. Diagnostic Accuracy of the Aortic Dissection Detection Risk Score Plus D-Dimer for Acute Aortic Syndromes: The ADvISED Prospective Multicenter Study.
  7. ↑ Asha SE et al. "A systematic review and meta-analysis of D-dimer as a rule out test for suspected acute aortic dissection." Annals of EM. 66;4;368-377Ocotber 2015.
  8. ↑ Shimony A, et al. Meta-analysis of usefulness of d-dimer to diagnose acute aortic dissection. Am J Cardiol. 2011; 107(8):1227-1234.
  9. ↑ Shiga T, Wajima Z, Apfel CC, Inoue T, Ohe Y. Diagnostic accuracy of transesophageal echocardiography, helical computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging for suspected thoracic aortic dissection: systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2006 Jul 10;166(13):1350-6.
  10. ↑ http://www.thepocusatlas.com/echocardiography-1
  11. ↑ Tsai TT, Nienaber CA, and Eagle KA. Acute Aortic Syndromes. Circulation. 2005;112:3802–3813
  12. ↑ Curran MP et al. Intravenous Nicardipine. Drugs 2006; 66(13): 1755-1782. http://emcrit.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/bolus-dose-nicardipine.pdf
  13. ↑ UpToDate Inc. Clevidipine [Drug information]. In:UpToDate Lexidrug. Wolters Kluwer; 2025. Accessed August 1, 2025.
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